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  \begin{document}
  \title{Filter optimization for real time digital processing of radiofrequency signals: application
  to oscillator metrology}

  \author{\IEEEauthorblockN{A. Hugeat\IEEEauthorrefmark{1}\IEEEauthorrefmark{2}, J. Bernard\IEEEauthorrefmark{2},
  G. Goavec-M\'erou\IEEEauthorrefmark{1},

  P.-Y. Bourgeois\IEEEauthorrefmark{1}, J.-M Friedt\IEEEauthorrefmark{1}}
  \IEEEauthorblockA{\IEEEauthorrefmark{1}FEMTO-ST, Time \& Frequency department, Besan\c con, France }
  \IEEEauthorblockA{\IEEEauthorrefmark{2}FEMTO-ST, Computer Science department DISC, Besan\c con, France \\
  Email: \{pyb2,jmfriedt\}@femto-st.fr}
  }
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  \begin{abstract}
  Software Defined Radio (SDR) provides stability, flexibility and reconfigurability to
  radiofrequency signal processing. Applied to oscillator characterization in the context
  of ultrastable clocks, stringent filtering requirements are defined by spurious signal or
  noise rejection needs. Since real time radiofrequency processing must be performed in a
  Field Programmable Array to meet timing constraints, we investigate optimization strategies
  to design filters meeting rejection characteristics while limiting the hardware resources
  required and keeping timing constraints within the targeted measurement bandwidths.
  \end{abstract}
  
  \begin{IEEEkeywords}
  Software Defined Radio, Mixed-Integer Linear Programming, Finite Impulse Response filter
  \end{IEEEkeywords}
  
  \section{Digital signal processing of ultrastable clock signals}
  
  Analog oscillator phase noise characteristics are classically performed by downconverting

  the radiofrequency signal using a saturated mixer to bring the radiofrequency signal to baseband,

  followed by a Fourier analysis of the beat signal to analyze phase fluctuations close to carrier. In
  a fully digital approach, the radiofrequency signal is digitized and numerically downconverted by

  multiplying the samples with a local numerically controlled oscillator (Fig. \ref{schema}) \cite{rsi}.

  
  \begin{figure}[h!tb]
  \begin{center}
  \includegraphics[width=.8\linewidth]{images/schema}
  \end{center}
  \caption{Fully digital oscillator phase noise characterization: the Device Under Test
  (DUT) signal is sampled by the radiofrequency grade Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and
  downconverted by mixing with a Numerically Controlled Oscillator (NCO). Unwanted signals
  and noise aliases are rejected by a Low Pass Filter (LPF) implemented as a cascade of Finite
  Impulse Response (FIR) filters. The signal is then decimated before a Fourier analysis displays
  the spectral characteristics of the phase fluctuations.}
  \label{schema}
  \end{figure}
  
  As with the analog mixer,
  the non-linear behavior of the downconverter introduces noise or spurious signal aliasing as
  well as the generation of the frequency sum signal in addition to the frequency difference.
  These unwanted spectral characteristics must be rejected before decimating the data stream
  for the phase noise spectral characterization. The characteristics introduced between the downconverter
  and the decimation processing blocks are core characteristics of an oscillator characterization
  system, and must reject out-of-band signals below the targeted phase noise -- typically in the
  sub -170~dBc/Hz for ultrastable oscillator we aim at characterizing. The filter blocks will
  use most resources of the Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) used to process the radiofrequency
  datastream: optimizing the performance of the filter while reducing the needed resources is
  hence tackled in a systematic approach using optimization techniques. Most significantly, we
  tackle the issue by attempting to cascade multiple Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filters with
  tunable number of coefficients and tunable number of bits representing the coefficients and the
  data being processed.
  
  \section{Filter optimization}
  
  A basic approach for implementing the FIR filter is to compute the transfer function of
  a monolithic filter: this single filter defines all coefficients with the same resolution
  (number of bits) and processes data represented with their own resolution. Meeting the
  filter shape requires a large number of coefficients, limited by resources of the FPGA since
  this filter must process data stream at the radiofrequency sampling rate after the mixer.
  
  An optimization problem \cite{leung2004handbook} aims at improving one or many
  performance criteria within a constrained resource environment. Amongst the tools
  developed to meet this aim, Mixed-Integer Linear Programming (MILP) provides the framework to
  provide a formal definition of the stated problem and search for an optimal use of available
  resources \cite{yu2007design, kodek1980design}.
  
  The degrees of freedom when addressing the problem of replacing the single monolithic

  FIR with a cascade of optimized filters are the number of coefficients $N_i$ of each filter $i$,
  the number of bits $c_i$ representing the coefficients and the number of bits $d_i$ representing
  the data fed to the filter. Because each FIR in the chain is fed the output of the previous stage,
  the optimization of the complete processing chain within a constrained resource environment is not

  trivial. The resource occupation of a FIR filter is considered as $c_i+d_i+\log_2(N_i)$ which is
  the number of bits needed in a worst case condition to represent the output of the FIR.
  
  
  \begin{figure}[h!tb]
  \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{images/noise-rejection.pdf}
  \caption{Rejection as a function of number of coefficients and number of bits}
  \label{noise-rejection}
  \end{figure}
  
  The objective function maximizes the noise rejection while keeping resource occupation below
  a user-defined threshold. The MILP solver is allowed to choose the number of successive
  filters, within an upper bound. The last problem is to model the noise rejection. Since filter
  noise rejection capability is not modeled with linear equation, a look-up-table is generated
  for multiple filter configurations in which the $c_i$, $d_i$ and $N_i$ parameters are varied: for each
  one of these conditions, the low-pass filter rejection defined as the mean power between
  half the Nyquist frequency and the Nyquist frequency is stored as computed by the frequency response
  of the digital filter (Fig. \ref{noise-rejection}).
  
  Linear program formalism for solving the problem is well documented: an objective function is
  defined which is linearly dependent on the parameters to be optimized. Constraints are expressed
  as linear equation and solved using one of the available solvers, in our case GLPK\cite{glpk}.
  
  The MILP solver provides a solution to the problem by selecting a series of small FIR with
  increasing number of bits representing data and coefficients as well as an increasing number

  of coefficients, instead of a single monolithic filter. Fig. \ref{compare-fir} exhibits the

  performance comparison between one solution and a monolithic FIR when selecting a cutoff
  frequency of half the Nyquist frequency: a series of 5 FIR and a series of 10 FIR with the
  same space usage are provided as selected by the MILP solver. The FIR cascade provides improved
  rejection than the monolithic FIR at the expense of a lower cutoff frequency which remains to
  be tuned or compensated for.
  
  \begin{figure}[h!tb]
  % \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{images/compare-fir.pdf}
  \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{images/fir-mono-vs-fir-series-200dB.pdf}
  \caption{Comparison of the rejection capability between a series of FIR and a monolithic FIR
  with a cutoff frequency set at half the Nyquist frequency.}
  \label{compare-fir}
  \end{figure}
  
  The resource occupation when synthesizing such FIR on a Xilinx FPGA is summarized as Tab. \ref{t1}.
  
  \begin{table}[h!tb]
  \caption{Resource occupation on a Xilinx Zynq-7000 series FPGA when synthesizing the FIR cascade
  identified as optimal by the MILP solver within a finite resource criterion. The last line refers

  to available resources on a Zynq-7010 as found on the Redpitaya board. The rejection is the mean
  value from 0.6 to 1 Nyquist frequency.}

  \begin{center}

  \begin{tabular}{|c|cccc|}\hline
  FIR & BlockRAM & LookUpTables & DSP & rejection (dB)\\\hline\hline

  1 (monolithic) & 1 & 4064 & 40 & -72 \\
  5 & 5 & 12332 & 0 & -217 \\
  10 & 10 & 12717 & 0 & -251 \\\hline\hline

  Zynq 7010 & 60 & 17600 & 80 &  \\\hline

  \end{tabular}
  \end{center}
  %\vspace{-0.7cm}
  \label{t1}
  \end{table}
  
  \section{Filter coefficient selection}
  
  The coefficients of a single monolithic filter are computed as the impulse response
  of the filter transfer function, and practically approximated by a multitude of methods
  including least square optimization (Matlab's {\tt firls} function), Hamming or Kaiser windowing
  (Matlab's {\tt fir1} function). Cascading filters opens a new optimization opportunity by
  selecting various coefficient sets depending on the number of coefficients. Fig. \ref{2}
  illustrates that for a number of coefficients ranging from 8 to 47, {\tt fir1} provides a better
  rejection than {\tt firls}: since the linear solver increases the number of coefficients along
  the processing chain, the type of selected filter also changes depending on the number of coefficients
  and evolves along the processing chain.
  
  \begin{figure}[h!tb]
  \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{images/fir1-vs-firls}
  \caption{Evolution of the rejection capability of least-square optimized filters and Hamming
  FIR filters as a function of the number of coefficients, for floating point numbers and 8-bit
  encoded integers.}
  \label{2}
  \end{figure}
  
  \section{Conclusion}
  
  We address the optimization problem of designing a low-pass filter chain in a Field Programmable Gate
  Array for improved noise rejection within constrained resource occupation, as needed for
  real time processing of radiofrequency signal when characterizing spectral phase noise
  characteristics of stable oscillators. The flexibility of the digital approach makes the result
  best suited for closing the loop and using the measurement output in a feedback loop for
  controlling clocks, e.g. in a quartz-stabilized high performance clock whose long term behavior

  is controlled by non-piezoelectric resonator (sapphire resonator, microwave or optical

  atomic transition).
  
  \section*{Acknowledgement}

  This work is supported by the ANR Programme d'Investissement d'Avenir in
  progress at the Time and Frequency Departments of the FEMTO-ST Institute
  (Oscillator IMP, First-TF and Refimeve+), and by R\'egion de Franche-Comt\'e.

  The authors would like to thank E. Rubiola, F. Vernotte, G. Cabodevila for support and
  fruitful discussions.
  
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